Constantine and Christian Faith

Was Constantine a "real" Christian?
Many critics of Constantine maintain that his actions towards the Church were motivated by his political aspirations. It is commonly asserted that his Christian profession was not genuine, and that he continued to worship the Sun and the "god" Apollos. The historical data actually show that Constantine seemed to act in genuine Christian charity, his writings reflect a personal knowledge and understanding of biblical text.

I will briefly give some of the data points regarding the following issues that have been presented to cast doubt on his faith:

- doubt over his "vision" that led to his conversion
- his continued usage of Sol Invictus
- his continued usage of Pontifex Maximus
- the brutal execution of his wife and son Crispus
- he was only baptized on his death bed
- the killing of Donatist Christians

Most of these issues are more fully discussed in the feedback section. Links to these articles are listed below. It is my opinion that Emperor Constantine was a flawed, but genuine Christian. I will attempt to offer data to support my position, however my opinion is just that - an opinion. There are three scholars I have on my shelves I want to list for any reader wanting to dive more deeply into the historical data:

- Odahl, Charles Matson, Constantine and the Christian Empire (Routledge 2010), 2nd ed. This is an excellent monograph offered by one of the top Constantinian scholars alive. Odahl retraces the 37 years of Constantine's life in great detail. Odahl does not state his position as recklessly as me, but it is clear that he considers Constantine's faith to be genuine.

- Fox, Robin Lane, Pagans and Christians: In the Mediterranean World from the Second Century AD to the Conversion of Constantine (Penguin 1986). Fox is a classicist and historian of the Greek and Roman world. He deals Constantine a very fair hearing.

- Leithart, Peter J., Defending Constantine, (IVP Academic 2010). As the title implies, Leithart is an apologist for Constantine and is arguing against Mennonite (and Anabaptist) writer, John Howard Yoder. Leithart covers a lot of ground, but if the reader is looking for a solid historical defense of Constantine, this is a good text.

Evidence Supporting the Faith of Constantine
Before addressing the specific topics used to argue against Constantine having true faith, here are some historical data that many do not know (or simply will not accept):

- his Christian mother (Helena)
- his father's attitude towards the Christians
- Lactantius (Christian writer) tutor of his son Crispus
- His writings reflect a knowledge of Christian doctrine
- Many of his governmental actions reflect Christian principles
- Several contemporary Christian bishops/writers believed him to be a Christian

Constantine's Christian Mother
Historians have to piece together bits of information to present a solid view of Constantine's mother. I have consulted all three writers mentioned above, but I will lean heavily on Charles Odahl's biographical presentation. Constantius (Constantine's father) appears to have frequented a particular inn on his military travels and met the innkeeper's daughter Helena. She slept with Constantius and became pregnant on one of his stays in the inn. Although some sources refer to Helena as a concubine, the most reliable source confirms that Constantius married Helena. (Odahl, p.16) Due to his extensive military travels, Helena raised her only child. Constantine and Helena were apparently very close.

Helena appears to have converted shortly after Constantine and became something of a Christian celebrity [there are indications that Helena had already converted prior to Constantine's experience]. She took a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and claimed to find several important biblical sites from the time of Jesus. (pp.211-212) As with most historical figures, Helena has aspects of contradiction. She appears to have held resentment towards Constantius and his second wife, Theodora the daughter of Maximian. (pp.56-57) As the Augustus of the West, Maximian wanted Constantius (Caesar of the West) to have blood ties with him, thus Constantius divorced Helena and married Maximian's daughter. This seems to have pushed Helena and her only son Constantine to have even a closer bond.

Helena's role in Constantine's life will come into play under a few other topics. In the story of Constantine his life, like many famous Christian leaders, was a mix of Christian principles...and sad failures. What seems clear, however, is that he was loyal to his father and his mother had a very important place of influence in his life.

Constantine's Father (Constantius)
While Constantine's father was not a Christian, he seems to have been a good man with high personal values. His personal philosophy was in the Platonism of his time, what we now call Neoplatonism. So he would have believed in "the One," an overarching belief in one true god.

Constantius rose rapidly in the military under the leadership of Diocletian. Both men were from the region of Illyria, to the east of Italy across the Adriatic Sea. The men of the Roman province of Illyricum were known for bravery and for being hardy warriors. Roman emperors recruited soldiers from this region, several of whom rose to become emperors including Diocletian, Constantius and his son Constantine. The troops under Constantius loved him and were highly loyal.

Diocletian developed the "Tetrarchy" [rule by four], dividing the Roman Empire in half with two men leading each half, an "Augustus" with a "Caesar" as a secondary emperor. In this system Diocletian wanted the two men to be related by blood, thus Caesar Constantius was expected to marry Theodora, the daughter of Maximian, the Augustus of the West. Constantine was twenty, his father had to put his first wife, Helena aside. Though separated from his son, Constantius made sure his son was trained for an imperial role and was eventually brought back to his side. (Odahl, p.17)

Constantius was known to be a moderate ruler, not harsh or dominating with his power over citizens. He was, however, a skilled military leader and in 293 he secured Gaul. In 296 he secured Britain. "His enforcement of Diocletian's edicts (303) against Christians was deliberately lax; he demolished some churches but did not execute believers." (www.britannica.com/biography/Constantius-I; Odahl, p.68) It is also interesting that Constantius named his daughter [from his second wife Theodora] Anastasia ("resurrection").
"As long as the Christians served the state loyally and prayed for it...he saw no reason to cause public disorder by persecuting them." (Odahl, p.69) And, "What is certain from the contemporary evidence is that he did not follow his colleagues down the brutal road of repression and bloodshed during the "Great Persecution," and that his son inherited and extended this attitude of tolerance to Christians." (Odahl, p.307-308n29)

Lactantius - Christian Tutor
Lactantius (240-c320 AD) was a Christian writer and apologist, a specialist in teaching rhetoric. After Diocletian set up the Tetrarchy, he hired teachers to help train and prepare the future emperors. Diocletian hired Lantantius to be the tutor in Nicomedia. (Odahl, p.54) Constantine was brought into service under Diocletian and met Lactantius. It is possible that he may have heard Lactantius lecture. Constantine eventually hired Lactantius to be the resident scholar in his court and became the private tutor of Constantine's son Crispus. (Odahl, p.125) The indications are that Lactantius used his tract Divine Institutes to teach Crispus rhetoric, ethics and Christian doctrine.

Odahl presents sections of several letters written by Constantine to various bishops and comments "...that Constantine's study and Lactantian works was having an effect on his political thinking." (Odahl, p.136) It appears that Constantine was eager to learn Christian doctrine; Lactantius was likely grateful that he could have such an influence on the new Emperor.

The Writings of Constantine
Possibly the most important evidence pointing to Constantine's faith are his writings. We are fortunate to have letters he wrote to bishops and a sermon he delivered later in life. While these writings do not prove that his faith was sincere it certainly does count as evidence.

Then in a letter to the Roman bishops AFTER the Donatists rejected the ruling and made their second or third appeal:

Finally, a few samples from Oration to the Assembly of Saints, a sermon read by Constantine on Easter Sunday towards the end of his life:

What can we see in this small sample of Constantine's writing?
1. A humility as he addresses bishops as equals. Remember, this is the Emperor of "the greatest kingdom of the known world" at the time. He is concerned with God's "wrath not only against the human race but even against me myself." It might not be unusual for the Augustus speak this way to a fellow ruler, but not to others who are lower than him.
2. Admitting unrighteousness "in the secret recesses of [his] heart." Again, this is humility, but also shows a sense of the Christian doctrine of "sin nature"...then, "Yet the Almighty God...has bestowed what I do not deserve." He seems to understand the doctrine of the grace of God - undeserved favor.
3. Referencing "God" as "above all," with "no origin...no beginning." Constantine appears to understand the eternal nature of God's sovereignty. Earlier he references Plato's view of "The One," but adds Logos theology into his statement: "God the Word, who has ordered all things; but the Word being God himself is also the Son of God." Oration IX
And my final comment on the writings I have pulled from:
4. He speaks of the Sun and the Moon as being under the "wisdom of God." For those who think Constantine retained his worship of the Sun, this cuts the legs out from under that argument.

So, the writings of Constantine reflect not only a knowledge of Christian doctrine, but also a realization that he must have a personal response to this doctrine.

Sol Invictus - Sun Worship
One of the primary accusations against Constantine being a sincere Christian is that he never stopped worshipping the Sun. Constantine did continue using various aspects of Sun worship, but there are several facts that counter this accusation. Prior to Constantine, early Christians had already co-opted aspects of Sun worship.

Clement of Alexandria portrays Christ, like the Sun-god, racing his chariot across the sky. Many pagans accused the Christians of Sun worship because they met on Sunday mornings - the early Christians did this to celebrate "the Lord's Day" as opposed to the Jewish Sabbath. Early in the fourth century the birthday of the Sun-god was co-opted as the day to celebrate the nativity of Jesus - there is no clear record of who started this tradition.

Secondly, the usage of the Sun on coins and other emblems was very common - much like the American eagle to represent freedom. The Sun represented a form of monotheism in the Greco-Roman world and a reference back to Plato and his view that the Sun is kind of like an "ikon" of "The One," the perfection of God in the spiritual realm. (Republic VI.507b–509c) Having the Sun on a coin would have been similar to having "In God We Trust" on our coins/dollars. There are probably some who would argue that using US money is idolatry.

Considering these facts, perhaps it is less striking that Constantine continued to use the Sun on his coins and other imperial emblems. It was very clear, however, from his various letters that he considered himself a Christian and the imperial leader (Pontifex Maximus) of the Church. It is also interesting that after Constantine's victory over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge, upon his triumphal march into Rome, rather than going immediately to pay homage at the shrine of Apollos...he went straight to the palace with the Christian men in his entourage for prayer and thanksgiving. Many were angry with him for this move. (Odahl, pp.110-111)

Odahl shows through an extensive survey of the documentary evidence and coins minted that Constantine never worships the Sun or any pagan god after his conversion in 312AD. Sol Invictus was displayed on the Arch of Constantine which had been commissioned by the Senate. They had sensed that the Emperor was not forbidding symbols of Sun worship, thus they included it. Indeed Constantine seems to have learned that Christians had been co-opting the Sun symbol for more than 100 years. The coins the Emperor minted for the 10th anniversary of his reign depicted him with a helmet adorned with the Christogram cross (Chi Rho symbol). (Odahl, p.143-144)

Even the Senate and pagan authors complain that he stops worshipping with them while taking every opportunity to worship with the Christians. During these celebrations, Constantine declined to participate in the pagan worship, yet joined in Christian worship. Some scholars believe this may have been the beginning of Constantine losing the support of the Senate. (Odahl, p.338n40)